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Austin, A. (2007). Parental empathy and attunement as related to the intergenerational tranmission of child abuse. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of North Texas, Texas.
Committee: Patricia Kaminski, Ph.D. (chair), Vicki Campbell, Ph.D., Amy Murrell, Ph.D.
Abstract: One widely studied risk factor for child abuse is the intergenerational transmission of abuse (ITA), in which being a victim of child abuse increases one’s risk for becoming an abusive parent. The Attachment theory of the ITA posits that abuse is transmitted across generations via the transmission of insecure attachment. Similarly, the cycle of abuse is broken when the child abuse survivor is still able to develop secure attachment. The purpose of this study was to explore attachment related factors, parental empathy and attunement, that may protect against the ITA. Research indicates abusive parents and abuse survivors score significantly lower on measures of empathy than their non-abusive or non-abused counterparts; therefore, it was hypothesized that low parental empathy would also be associated with the ITA. The present study tested whether parental empathy and/or parental attunement distinguished child abuse survivors who were at higher risk for transmitting abuse (an indirect measure of the ITA) from those who were more likely to break the cycle of abuse. Self-report and observational measures of 83 parent-child dyads were acquired from an archival dataset. Data analyses included one independent samples t-test, two Multivariate Analyses of Variance (MANOVAs), and one Hierarchical Multiple Regression. Results supported the hypotheses, indicating that low parental empathy and attunement were associated with (an indirect measure of) the ITA. Furthermore, parental attunement was a better predictor of child abuse potential than was self-reported parental empathy. The importance of parental empathy and attunement in breaking the cycle of child abuse is discussed. Exploratory analyses, limitations, clinical implications, and directions for future research are also discussed.

Bensman, H. (2009). Modifying Attributions, Affect, and Relational Functioning of Women Victims of Domestic Violence: A Qualitative Study of the PCIA-II/MAP Intervention. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Indianapolis, Indiana.
Committee: Richard Holigrocki, Ph.D. (chair), Yvonne Bohr, Ph.D., Joseph Hansel, Ph.D.
This study qualitatively evaluated a brief intervention program for mothers who had been victims of domestic violence. This intervention was designed for use with high risk families by Bohr (2005), and was adapted for use with a domestic violence population. The intervention focused on identifying and modifying the mother’s maladaptive attributions toward her child, with the goals of decreasing negative maternal attributions, parenting stress, maternal depressive symptoms, and atypical parenting behaviors. A sample of three mother-child dyads was selected for study. The mothers and their 5- to 10-year-old children completed various instruments assessing parent attributions, parenting stress, and parent and child psychopathology. Included in this series of assessments was the Parent-Child Interaction Assessment-II (PCIA-II; Holigrocki, Kaminski, & Frieswyk, 2002), which was videotaped. These video recordings were reviewed by two clinicians to identify problematic moments in the parent-child interaction and to emphasize aspects of parenting strength, and the mothers subsequently viewed portions of these videos over the four sessions that comprised the intervention. Outcome variables were assessed at pre- and posttest. Background information, an overview of treatment, and treatment outcome are presented for each of the three cases. Changes in attribution style regarding negative events were variable across participants. All mothers demonstrated a slight increase in their perception of power within the parent-child relationship. Two mothers endorsed a decrease in parenting stress, while the third remained stable. All participants demonstrated a decrease in depressive symptoms and atypical parenting behaviors. Although the hypotheses were generally supported, some variability in outcome was demonstrated. Possible factors influencing this variability were examined. Trends in maternal attributions regarding child behavior were identified. Given the findings that all participants endorsed decreased depressive symptomatology and decreased frequency of atypical maternal behaviors from pretest to posttest, this study lends credence for the effectiveness of the PCIA-II/MAP intervention. 

Burch, S. (2008). Assessing attachment in mother-child dyads using the Parent-Child Interaction Assessment-II. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Indianapolis, Indiana.
Committee: Richard Holigrocki, Ph.D. (chair), Barbara Callahan, Ph.D., Tracy Wechselblatt, Ph.D.
Abstract: Explored the use of the Parent-Child Interaction Assessment-II (PCIA-II) in assessing attachment in mother-child dyads. This assessment method is unique in that both the mother and child engage in a narrative story-stem technique in which attachment-activating scenarios are played out. The dissertation reviews relevant attachment assessments for early and middle childhood; namely, separation/reunion tasks and child-focused narrative story-stem techniques.  Literature on the behavior correlates of attachment in both mothers and children is also reviewed. Dyads for this study were chosen from a pool of archived data based on their objective test scores, which assess several behavioral correlates of attachment. Specifically, dyads representing each attachment category (secure, avoidant, ambivalent, and disorganized) were chosen.  Attachment categories were then assigned based on the PCIA-II and were coded using an adapted version of the prototype-based attachment classification criteria developed by Granot and Mayseless (2001). Cross-classification agreement among the two attachment measures was assessed.  Results of this study show that the secure and overall insecure categories (avoidant, ambivalent, and disorganized combined) had the highest level of cross-classification agreement while the insecure categories had little to no cross-classification agreement. An exploratory discriminant analysis was also conducted in order to examine what variable or combination of variables best predicts assignment into each of the attachment categories. 

Collins, M. (2005). Narcissistic traits and parenting style: A closer look at maladaptive parenting through parent-child observations, parent self-report, and child self-report. (Doctoral dissertation, University of North Texas). Dissertation Abstracts International, 65(8-B), 4279.
Committee: Patricia Kaminski, Ph.D. (chair), C. Neumann
Abstract: The thrust of this paper was two-fold, (1) to test a 2-factor model of narcissism in women, and (2) to examine the relationship between narcissistic traits in mothers and several variables associated with parenting efficacy. Participants included 193 mother-child dyads. A 2-factor model of narcissism was confirmed in the present sample of mothers, suggesting that narcissistic traits in women may be manifested in distinct Overt and Covert forms. Contrary to expectations, Covert Narcissistic traits in mothers did not significantly correlate with observed parenting behaviors on the PCIA, including Positive Personal Comments (PPC) towards children, Negative Personal Comments (NPC), and Parental Nurturance. However, children's self-reported maternal rejection on the C-PARQ correlated positively with Covert Narcissistic traits in mothers, as did mother's self-reported dysfunctional parenting attitudes on the AAPI-2. Narcissistic traits in mothers correlated most strongly with risk of child physical abuse on the CAPI (r = .70). Results are also presented for the Overt Narcissism factor, which proved to be less stable as a factor. Overall, results emphasize the need for a more comprehensive understanding of narcissism for women, given its potential implications for children's healthy development and parenting interventions. Abstract from PsycINFO.

Durrant, S. L. (2002). Parent behaviors as predictors of peer acceptance in children with and without attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of North Texas, Texas.
Committee: Patricia Kaminski, Ph.D. (chair)
Abstract: Examined the impact of parent-child relationship characteristics on peer acceptance in children with ADHD. Participants were recruited from the community. Results indicated some support for a family-peer links in children with ADHD. Positive parental affect was the strongest predictor of child-reported peer acceptance in children diagnosed with ADHD. Negative parenting behaviors showed trends toward significance in predicting lower level’s of child-reported peer acceptance in both children with ADHD and undiagnosed children. Parent and child reports of parental rejection failed to show a significant effect for peer acceptance in both children with ADHD and undiagnosed children.

Kallstrom-Fuqua, A. C. (2005). Examining parenting outcomes of childhood sexual abuse surviviors utilizing observation and self-report methods. (Doctoral dissertation, University of North Texas, 2004). Dissertation Abstracts International, 65(8-B), 4291.
Committee: Patricia Kaminski, Ph.D. (chair)
Childhood sexual abuse (CSA) is associated with negative outcomes in adulthood, including difficulty in relationships. Research has posited CSA may lead to insecure attachment in survivors, which may be the vehicle by which dysfunctional parent-child relationships develop. The purpose of the proposed study was to examine differences in parenting outcomes between CSA and non-CSA mothers utilizing both observational and self-report methods and to examine the unique impact of CSA on parenting attitudes. Abuse status was determined by scores on the Sexual Abuse subscale of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ), with the CSA group comprised of mothers scoring in the moderate to severe range. Mothers self-reported parenting attitudes on the Parent-Parental Acceptance Rejection Questionnaire/Control (P-PARQ/Control) and the Adult Adolescent Parenting Inventory-2 (AAPI-2), while parental depression was assessed with the revised Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-2). Parenting behaviors were observed by coding the Parent-Child Interaction Assessment (PCIA). Hypotheses were not supported until child gender was considered as a third variable. Results of MANCOVA analyses indicated CSA mothers, but not comparison mothers, exhibited significantly poorer limit-setting skills (eta; 2 = .21) with male children compared to female children, but did not self-report these differences. Although not statistically significant, small but potentially meaningful effect sizes were found when the self-reports of CSA mothers were compared to their observed behaviors. Specifically, CSA mothers displayed increased levels of physical nurturance (eta;2 = .11) and role reversal (eta;2 = .08) with male children compared to female children, but again, did not self-report these differences. Finally, CSA mothers, but not comparison mothers tended to self-report greater beliefs in corporal punishment with male children compared to females (eta; 2 = .08). Secondary findings revealed parental depression was the only unique predictor of parental nurturance, attitude toward corporal punishment, and role reversal. Findings confirm the importance of third variables, including child gender and parental depression. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed, as well as limitations and future research directions. Abstract from PsycINFO.

Raches, C. M. (2004). Children with disruptive behavior disorders: Representations and behaviors with parents. Unpublished doctoral disseration, University of Indianapolis, Indiana.
Committee: Richard Holigrocki, Ph.D. (chair), Susan Jackson-Walker, Ph.D., Gregory Taliaferro, Ph.D.
Abstract: Examined the relationship between children’s internal representations and their behaviors when playing with their parents. Internal representations and behaviors of children with and without disruptive behavior disorders (DBD) were compared using projective measures and a semi-structured parent-child interaction task. Method. Examined 34 parent-child dyads with children between 7- and 10-years-old. Of the 34 dyads, 19 dyads had parents with children with externalizing elevations on the CBCL for behavioral problems. The remaining 15 dyads consisted of children who neither were diagnosed with DBD nor had externalizing elevations on the CBCL. Each dyad completed the PCIA-II and interactions were coded for aggression, compliance, and noncompliance. Parents completed the CBCL and children completed the K-BIT, Rorschach, and TAT. Rorschach responses were scored using the Mutuality of Autonomy Scale (MOA; Urist, 1977) and TAT responses were scored using the Social Cognition and Object Relations Scale (SCORS; Westen et al., 1985). Results. Social Cognition and Object Relations Affect-Tone (SCORS-AT) mean ratings were significantly different between the two groups [t(32) = 2.10; p = .044]. The community contrast group (CC) had a mean score of 3.04 (SD = .53) and the DBD group had a mean score of 2.63 (SD = .58) suggesting that the DBD group experienced the world as more malevolent and threatening than did the CC group. Among the DBD children, there was a -.53 (p = .024) correlation between their SCORS-AT mean scores and their physical aggression during the PCIA-II videotaped parent-child interaction. The MOA findings were in the expected direction but did not reach statistical significance. Discussion. This study lends support to the hypothesis that DBD children view the world as more threatening, hostile, and unsafe than do children without DBD, and the malevolence of their worldview is related to their physical aggression as expressed in play with their parents.

Warren, S. (2002). Parent-child Interactions with ADHD children: Parental empathy as a predictor of child adjustment. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of North Texas, Texas.
Committee: Patricia Kaminski, Ph.D. (chair)
Abstract:

Weisenbach, S. (2000). Parental attunement, child abuse potential, depression, and relationship satisfaction in mothers of girls with attention deficits. Unpublished BA thesis, Wittenberg University, Ohio.
Committee: Patricia Kaminski, Ph.D. (chair)
Abstract: